Psychology

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Theories of personalities:

There are many theories of personality such as

        I.            Humanist Theory   by call rajar masalow

      II.            Phenol theatric theory by Jhon catlels

    III.            Behaviorlistic by Sigmund Freud.

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory.

Ø  Sigmund Freud an Austrian physician (1856-1939)

Ø  Originated psychoanalytic theory

psychoanalytic theory.:

Ø  that unconscious forces act as determinants (fesla kun) for the personality.

Ø  He believed that much of our behavior is motivated by the unconscious, which is a part of the personality of which a person is not aware.

Ø  He believed that to understand personality it is necessary to expose what is in unconscious.

Ø  The main point on which his theory is based is sexuality.

How personality develops:(FLSPD)

·           1^st five formative years.

           i.               Freud emphasize that personality is largely determined during the 1^st five years of age.

         ii.               For him 1^st five years are very important.

       iii.               Any conflict or anxiety in this stage will effect on the future of the individual.

       iv.               He believe that in this stage there is a psychic energy called libido (associated with sexual desire), which is the main motivational force behind every action.

         v.               Two instinct (natural) are observable in this stage.

                                                              i.      Eros :- Constructive instincts

                                                            ii.      Tharatos : - Destructive instincts.

·           Level of Awareness. 

According to Freud there are three level of awareness.

Conscious : - It is an aware part anything we know we talk logically and rationally is the conscious part of the personality.

Preconscious:- we are aware of the memory but they are not active in our mind.

Unconscious: related to guilt, anxiety, shame pain and conflict feelings we are unaware of this part.

·           Structure of personality:-

According to the Freud personality consist of three separate but inter acting components.

1)     The ID            2) The Ego      3) The super Ego.

1)The ID       

·        Raw unorganized, inborn part of personality .

·        Its sole purpose is to reduce tension created by the primitive desires related to sex hunger aggression and irrational impulses.

·        These drives are fueled by the psychic energy i.e libido.

·        ID operates through “pleasure principle ie. Fulfillment of of the desire at any cost, however reality is against pleasure.

2)     The Ego        

·        It is par t of the personality that provides balance between the desires of ID and the reality of the objective outside world.

·        Ego operates by reality principal in which the instinctual energy is restrained to maintain the safety of the individual and social acceptance.

·        Ego is the executive of the personality.

·        It makes decisions, control actions and allows thinkings.

3)     The super Ego.

·        Final personality structure,

·        Represents the right and wrong of society as taught by parents, teachers and society.

·        It have two components, the conscious and ego ideal

                                                                 i.      Conscious: make us guilty feel if we do wrong.

                                                               ii.      Ego ideal:- perfect person, motivates to do the best.

·        Super ego helps us control impulses coming from id

·        According to Freud a healthy personality is the one which has balance of these three.

Examples:

ID: - a person will say if I want to do sex I have to be because it is pleasure abl.

Ego: - I do sex but occasionally and with safety measures.

Super Ego: - I will not do sex bee it gives me guilty feelings.

·           Psychosexual stages of development.

Freud describes the psychosexual stages of development as follow.

Oral stage

Anal stage

Phallic stage

Latency stage

Genital stage.

Oral stage: (Birth 12 or 18 months)

·        In this stage the zone of pleasure is mouth child suck, mount bite any thing that will fit into their mount.

·        Mouth is the primary site of a kind of sexual pleasure (with drawing of breast or bottles ) is the main conflict in this stage.

Anal Stage:  age 12 or 18 months to 3 years

·        A period when the emphasis is on toilet training is the anal stage

·        Major zone of pleasure changes from mouth to oral region and child feel. Pleasure from both retention and expulsion of faces.

·        If toilet training is demanding the result may be fixation which later on show un usual rigidity or carelessness

Phallic Stage:  age about 3 years

·        Zone of pleasure is genitals

·        This is also very important stage because of an important point of our personality development i.e

                                i.            oedipal conflict:- which is a child’s sexual interest in opposite sex parent.

                              ii.            Identification :-  concept is developed also i.e process of wanting to be like another  person.

                            iii.            girls wish they have the autonomical part (penis)

Latent Stage: age 5 to 6 years.

·        The period between the phallic stage and puberty during the children’s sexual concerns are temporarily put aside.

Genital stage:   Age 5,6 years to  death

·        Final stage

·        This stage is marked by mature sexual behavior which Freud called sexual intercourse.

Critical analysis

Positive points.

1.      Significant impact on psychology field.

2.      Ideas of un-conscious

Learning

Various definitions of learning.

1.      Learning defined as a permanent change in behavior form experience.

2.      It is modification of behavior through permanent change.

3.      It is a continuous process by which we acquire various interests, habits, knowledge, skills etc.

4.      Learning results in change, modification or stabilization of behavior

5.      Learning is a permanent change in behavior which occur as a result of practice or experience.

Experience

It explains three things

                                  I.            Change in behavior

                                II.            Change through practice or experience

                              III.            The change must be permanent for learning

An important thing over here is that short term change in behavior are not due to learning they are due to declines in Pergo manse  from fatigue or lack of efforts

·         Permanent change ---à learning

·         Temporary change --à poor performance or lack of effort.

Importance of learning.

·         To adopt to our environment  for survival, for growth it enhance our ability of change by learning are find food, way , make friends, need etc.

·         It play an important role in psychology, psychologists emphasis on learning for the analytics of human behavior and mental procedure.

Characteristics important aspects of learning

·         Chang in behavior for better or worst

·         Permanents change in behavior, last for long time.

·         Can be gained by experience.

Measurement of learning

·         Can not be measured directly

·         Some psychology suggest that the measurement of performance for measurement of learning but empirical research reflects that performance is not a measure of learning because it also involves motivation

·         Difficult to measure learning.

Types of learning

        I.            Habituation

      II.            Associative learning

a.      Classical conditioning

b.      Instrumental conditioning

c.       Operant conditioning

    III.            Cognitive learning

a.      Insight learning

b.      Latent learning

c.       Observational learning or (imitation) or (modeling)

    IV.            High order learning

      V.            verbal learning

    VI.            Imprinting

  VII.            Motor learning

VIII.            shape

        I.            Habituation

      II.             

    III.            If the stimulus has no other consequence and occurs repeadly, the response will diminish. The response will diminish. This phenomena is called habituation. Human beings have a great capacity for habituation, or not responding to a large number of stimulus.

    IV.            Example :-  crying children, sroaring  roommate.

      V.            In simple mean habituation means getting used to some events. or

   VI.              Due to frequent repetition of a stimuli the response may diminish if the stimuli no consequential effect. Or

  VII.            it is a simple form of learning in which organism stop paying attention to environmental stimuli that never changes. 

VIII.            Associative learning

Associative (milany wala  )learning can be defined as

It is the learning, based upon the association of two different stimuli.

Types of Associative learning

a) Classical conditioning  b) Instrumental conditioning  c) Operant conditioning

Conditioning: 

·         The acquisition (gain) of a particular behavior in the presence of a particular stimuli.

·         “Association between a particular form of behavior and a particular for of stimulus”

Types of Conditioning: 

·         Forward conditioning : where conditioned stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus in time.

·         Backward conditioning: where unconditioned stimulus precedes the conditioned stimulus in time.

·         Simultaneous conditioning :  it is the presentation of conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus at same time

·         Delayed conditioning:  it is where a considerable time between the presentation of conditioned and unconditioned stimulus.

·         Appetitive conditioning: where pleasant stimulus is used i.e food.

·         Aversive (unhappy) conditioning: where unpleasant stimulus is used. i.e electric shock.

a)      Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning or Pavlov conditioning or respondent conditioning.

Classical conditioning was discovered by the IVON PAVLO, he was a Russian physiologist, and he discovered this phenomenon through an experiment which was conducted on a dog.

The experiment :- Ivon Pavlove observed a dog in control experiment. He paired sound of a bell with the supply of meat to dog as food. After few experiments he noticed that the dog salivate at  the sight of experimenter and after several experiments the began to salivate at the sound of bell ( he named it psychic secretion ) and named this behavior as psychic reflex.

Pavlove used some terms for the things and factor involved in the experiment.

·         Natural stimulus

A stimulus that does not bring any response without condition. i.e the bell

·         Unconditional stimulus

A stimulus that bring a particular response without any learning i.e the meat.

STIMULUS= meat.

·         Unconditional response

A response that need no learning, a natural response.

Natural response = salivation at the sight or smell of meat.

These were the stimulus and response without any conditioning because they are more natura.

Now after conditioned

·         Conditioned stimulus

Bell will be conditioned because now we associated a condition with the stimulus, that is presentation of meat when the bell ring.

·         Conditioned response

Response after conditioning. i.e the dog salivate when the bell ring because, food is served after it.

                                i.            Before conditioning

Bell ring but dog does not salivate. Meat is presented and dog salivate i.e natural

                              ii.            During conditioning

Dog is presented food when ever bell ring.

                            iii.             After conditioning.

Dog salivate when bell ring even if the meat is not presented.

Process in classical conditioning.

Pavlov observed different process in the experiment which is known as classical conditioning these are as follow:

                                i.            Acquisition

Conditioned response is acquired gradually (salivation). During the 1^st trail there is no Conditioned response. It continues to strengthen until it reaches a maximum level.

                              ii.            Extinction

The process by which conditioned stimulus ( bellring + food) stop producing the Conditioned response (salivate ) i.e. if food or meat is presented when bell ring

                            iii.            Spontaneous recovery

Reappearance of response. i.e. again salivation when ring but if the meat is presented.

                             iv.            Generalization

When a conditioned response follow a stimulus that is to the original conditioned stimulus i.e dog often salivate when bell ring even if no food given

                               v.            Stimulus discrimination

Learning of an organism to differentiate among different stimulus, and he strict his responding to one stimulus than other i.e. light of signals, only red to stop.

                             vi.            Higher order conditioning

If your neighbor dog bites you twice or thrice, an unpleasant reaction will be given by you even if some one takes his name. this is called high order condition.

Applying conditioning principles to human behavior

·         Although initial classical conditioning experiments were carried out with animals, but then these principles found to explain many respects of every day human behavior.

·         Emotional responses can be learned through classical conditioning.

Experiment : - John B. Watson in his experiments with 11 months Albert studied how emotions are learned he presented a white rat (classical conditioning) and a loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) to little abler. After several pairings baby showed fear of white rate. Later Albert baby generalized the fear to stimuli similar to (classical condition) such a white beard.

·         Some fear or phobias are classically conditioned. i.e fear response to dentist chair.

·         In humans learning is most prominent during preschool and school years. Children learn to read and write.

·         Adults learn jobskills in practical life how to care the family.

·         Classical condition does not explain the complicated skills such as talking & writing.

·         Pavlov said that there are brain’s two cerebral hemisphere involved in learning

·         Classical condition can often be used to explain many physiological responses specially emotions.

·         Fear or phobias are thought to be the result of classical condition.

·         Baby suck any thing comes in his mouth reason nipple, breast.

·         Any fearful sound if accompanied with, he will be frightened.

b)     Instrumental conditioning

Instrumental conditioning or trail and error learning

·         Here instrumental means “usefulness( )”  or “rewardfull”

·         This concept of learning was given by an American psychologist E.L Thorndike from Columbia university.

·         He use experiments of cats

·         He also name this conditioning type as ‘trial and error’ learning.

Experiment :  Thorndike put a hungry cat in a puzzle box. The box was such that it will open only if the cat pulled a certain lever associated with a string. Then he put food outside the box, in view of hungry cat. The cat’s 1^st response was that she scratch, leap ( ) , try to squeeze through bars of box and during these activities the cat would happen to work the particular escape device. She became free and  feed. The next time she took less time to step on the lever pedal and escape. After a few trails, the cat stepped on pedal as soon as she was placed in box.

Result according to Thorndike, the cat would have learned that pressing the pedal associated with the desirable consequence of getting food.

Formulated the law of effect:

It states, “That responses that are satisfying are more likely to be repeated and those that are not satisfying are less likely to be repeated.”

Instrumental learning: He felt that the law of effected operated as automatically as leaves falling of a tree in autumn.

Instrumental learning states:  “Individuals are instrumental in emitting or producing a response” a behavior that is followed by a consequence”. i.e. work followed by a consequence of pay. Cooking delicious food followed by a consequence of verbal praise from mother. Thorndike contended that it was the feeling of satisfaction and accomplishment that made a successful response more probable.

·         Thorndike said it was necessary for an organism to understand that, that was a link between a response and a reward.

·         Over time and through experience the organism would make a direct connect between the stimulus and the response.

c)      Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is a concept of an American psychologist B.F skinner. He believed that learning can be described in terms of observational behavior, he did the most in classical conditioning. 

Experiment:  skinner devised a box with highly controlled environment to study operant conditioning . he constructed on apparatus called skinner box, and he placed hungry rat in it. First he wander in the box exploring it, at same time however it will probably pull the lever by chance and received the   food. The 1^st time it happened, the rat was not learnt the connection between pressing a lever receiving food but gradually the rat pressed the lever to received food pellet. When he received food by pressing the lever his frequency of pressing the lever increased. Eventually the rat learned to press the continually until it satisfied its hunger, that he learned to operate the environment for his desired response .

Operate the environment = pressing lever when hunger

Desired response = food pallet.

Result :- he called the behavior of rat, operant behavior” because it function to operate on the environment, and the behavior in response to the stimuli is respondent behavior (food presentation) .

The operant conditioning is defined as “ a form of learning in which the organism operate on its environmental in order to produce some desirable results”.

·         In operant condition the subject is freely able to respond and operate his environment.

Principles of operant conditioning :

Following are the principle of operant conditioning as described by skinner

i) acquisition  ii) Extinction    iii) spontaneous recovery   iv) Generalization    v) discrimination

vi) shaping  vii) reinforcement 

i)           acquisition : the subject must be motivated to want what ever is used as reinforcement ( reward i.e food). If reinforcement is food then the subject should be hungry . it is important that reinforcement follows the response because the response then occur more frequently .

ii)           Extinction   when response no longer leads to a reinforcing event i.e by pressing lever no food is presented

iii)       spontaneous recovery : the occurrence of behavior that had been extinguished , can appear after a rest period. Rats that have been on extension in skinner box will begin to press the lever again when placed in box after a rest period.

iv)       Generalization:  (i.e aik response say agar faida hua hy to usy kisi dusri jaga par apply karna)

In which on organism learns to response stimuli and then applies it  to other stimuli i.e once a rat learned to get food by pressing he will again press a lever like thing.    

v)         discrimination “ The ability to differentiate between stimuli” (i.e kisi ke eyes sy andaza lga lya ky us ka matlab hy  gusay wale ankoon y a pyar wali.  i.e if you wait until you room mate is in good mood before asking to borrow her jewellary, ie. You are able to discriminate between his good or a bad mood.

vi)       Shaping :” process of teaching a complex  behavior by rewarding the subject and close approximation  to the desired behavior”

i.e  koi lalach dy ky jey k food kisi organism ko kuch seekhana. Jesy dogs ko trend karna food ka lalach dy ky). Pigeons trained to rescue people last at sea.

vii)     Reinforcement :  (means reward)  ( kissi  kam ky end main ka mil raha hy). Learning is reinforecement. Food bonus, toys, good grades could also serve as reinforce and they will strengthen the response. If behavior increases the stimulus is called reinforces types of reinforcements

a.      Primary it satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of a persons prior experience. Ie food for hungry person, warmth for cold person

b.      Secondary : in contrast to primary it is a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with the primary reinforcer. Ie. Mony is valuable because it allow us to obtain our needs i.e food i.e primary reinforce.

Money è buy è food

c.       Positive reinforcer:  it is a stimulus added the environment bring increase in a preceding response (i.e jis ke presence sy kam acha ho) ie. Food water, money if provided after it is more likely that the response will occurs.

d.      Negative reinforcer  : “ is an unpleasant stimulus whose removal from the environment lead to an increase in the preceding response. (ie. Jis ke absence say kam acha ho) ie. If you have cold symptom (un pleasant stimuli that are relived when you take the medicines so here cold is a negative reinforcer.  There are three form of negative reinforcer.

Ø   Escape conditioning training : a for of learning which an organism adopt or acquire a response that permit it to escape the pain full stimulus.

Example keeping hands  in pocket if cold out side. Acquiring a response (keeping hands in pocket) pain full stimulus (cold out side)

Ø  Avoidance conditioning:  A form of learning in which an organism must learn to make some response that permit him to the aversive stimulus.

Ø  Example: an automobile driver learn to fill his tank in order to running out of fuel

Ø  Punishment Training : it is an unpleasant or painful stimulus that decreases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again.

A specific behavior decrease due to punishment. ^{Read from feld man page 119 for concept}

Schedule of reinforcement : schedules of reinforcement  means frequency and timing of reinforcement.  There are two types of reinforcement schedule

i)                    Continuous            ii)         partial   

                                i.            Continuous  “ Reinforcing of a behavior of a behavior every time it occur”          (reward after a behavior every time)

                                                                 ^ii.                        partial   reinforcing of a behavior some but not all the time. (kabi reward mila kabi na mila) skinner described four basic partial reinforcement in 1957. ^{(FR, VR, FI,VI)}

^1.    Fixed ration schedule              2.  Variable ration schedule

3. Fixed interval schedule          4. Variable interval schedule

^ü    Fixed ration schedule : in Fixed ration schedule  reinforcement (reward ) is given only after a specific number of responses. i.e a rate receive a food pellet every tenth time it pressed a levar, so the ratio is 1:10.

Frequency of response                                  Short posses after each response.

^ü    Variable ration schedule in Variable ration schedule reinforcement occurs after a varying number of response. i.e a person buys a lottery ticket each week in the hope of hitting it big someday.

Frequency of response                                  responding occur at a high steady rate

^ü     Fixed interval schedule  “ A schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period is passed away”.

Frequency of response                                              long pauses after each response

^ü     Variable interval schedule “ a schedule that in varying intervals of time”. Different time intervals for trails i.e one trail may be of 2 minutes, rent a 4 minutes and a third of 1 minutes. There is no fixed time.

Frequency of response                                   responding occur at a steady rate

Comparison between classical conditioning instrumental and operant condition

Focuses:- operant & instrumentals focus è association between the response and stimulus.

While Classical conditioning focuses è stimulus relations.

Base Operant and instrumental base è conscious and voluntary learning

Object

Teaching

Reward

Approaches of learning

Base of approach of learning

Nervous System:

Association

Learned response

Reinforcement

    IX.            Cognitive learning

Cognitive learning proposes that learner utilized mental process and memory to make decisions about behavior. It proposes that the learner utilizes his mental structre and memory to make mental structure and memory to make decisions about behavior

Types of cognitive learning

a.      Insight learning   b.  latent learning    c.  observational learning

1.      Insight learning   kohler gave the idea of Insight learning. He belived that learning is fundamentally a process of perceptual reorganization and it not always occur on trail and error biases.

Experiment a chimpanzee  confined in a cage bananas placed outside some distance away to sticks in the cage. So fashioned that end of one could be inserted in to end of other to make it a long one. Neither stick- - it self sufficient length to reach banana, but both can—then bananas can pulled inside the cage. Kohler observed following

2.       

 

a.      b.  latent learning    c.  observational learning

      X.            High order learning

    XI.            verbal learning

  XII.            Imprinting

XIII.            Motor learning

XIV.            shape